Machine Learning for Hackers

Chapter 2. Data Exploration

Exploration versus Confirmation

Whenever you work with data, it’s helpful to imagine breaking up your analysis into two completely separate parts: exploration and confirmation. The distinction between exploratory data analysis and confirmatory data analysis comes down to us from the famous John Tukey,^[6] who emphasized the importance of designing simple tools for practical data analysis. In Tukey’s mind, the exploratory steps in data analysis involve using summary tables and basic visualizations to search for hidden patterns in your data. In this chapter, we describe some of the basic tools that R provides for summarizing your data numerically, and then we teach you how to make sense of the results. After that, we show you some of the tools that exist in R for visualizing your data, and at the same time, we give you a whirlwind tour of the basic visual patterns that you should keep an eye out for in any gization.

But before you start searching through your first data set, we should warn you about a real danger that’s present whenever you explore data: you’re likely to find patterns that aren’t really there. The human mind is designed to find patterns in the world and will do so even when those patterns are just quirks of chance. You don’t need a degree in statistics to know that we human beings will easily find shapes in clouds after looking at them for only a few seconds. And plenty of people have convinced themselves that they’ve discovered hidden messages ...