Foreword

I started programming computers in the mid-1980s. Then, like today, computing and communication systems were heterogeneous; that is, there were many different programming languages, operating systems, and networking protocols. Moreover, due to the accidental complexities of programming with low-level and nonportable application programming interfaces (APIs), the types of networked applications available to software developers and end users were relatively primitive, consisting largely of e-mail, remote login, and file transfer. As a result, many applications were either centralized on mainframes and minicomputers or localized on a single stand-alone PC or workstation.

There have been significant advances in information technology ( ...

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